Morphological and genealogical classifications of languages.
Lang-e may be classified in different ways:
the morphologically and genealogically.
When we classified the language morphologically we
mean the structure of the word of a living language. When we classified the
language genealogically we mean the origin of the language. According to the
M.C. the language are divided into languages having not affixes and the
lang-s with affixes. The words of the lang-e, which has not affixes, are
unchangeable (such as где, туда, здесь, там, in, at, for, since, etc). Word order is
of a great important in lang-s with has no affixes. Languages with affixes are
classified into agglutinative and inflected. Both of them are characterized by
affixes but the connection between the root or the steam of the word and the
suffixes is quite different. In inflected languages the suffix is
characterized by two or more meanings. (домам). To the inflected languages we refer the
language of Indo-European family (such as Russian, German, English, Latin,
etc). In agglutinative languages the suffix is characterized only by one
meaning (in Georgian lang., in English – some words like ox-oxen’s-бык).
Agglutinative languages are divided into: Altanian, Agro-Finish,
Iberian-Caucasian. According to the G.C. all the lang-s of the world are
classified into large families of lang-s. They are: Indo-European, Semitic and
Hermitic, Altaic, Iberian-Caucasian, Chinese-Tibet, Indonesian.
№2. The Verb in English and in Russian compare.
The verb is a notional part of speech. Both
in E&R the verb denote an action (to write — писать), a process (to
work) and a state (to sit, stand). Syntactically the verb functions as a simple
verbal predicate. (Она пишет письма
каждый день. She writes
letters every day.) Morphologically the verb in Russian is characterized by the
following categories: tense, aspect, mood, person, number, gender. The English
forms has the same categories but they has not the category of gender but they
has a time of relations. The verbs may be classified into: subjective and
objective. Subjective verbs are connected with their subject. In English
practically all the verbs are subjective. In Russian – not all. They may be
used without their subjects (Темнеет). Objective verbs are closely connected
with two nouns or noun equivalents. Objective verbs which are connected with
their objects directly are transitive verbs, all others – intransitive.
As to their morphemes we find a greater
variety and abundance of stem-building affixes in Russian (в-, вз-, воз-,
пери-, за-, из-, на-, над-, низ-, -ова-, -ствова-). In English the number of v-building
suffixes is limited (-ify, -ate, -en, etc). Though the number of prefixes in
English is greater (mis-, un-, be-, out-, etc). 
The most productive way of forming verbs in
MoE is conversion. It is not characteristic in Russian (because of the
different structures).  We find difference in the system of the non-finite
forms, we find no gerund in Russian. The Infinitive in English is characterized
by such categories as voice, aspect, correlation. The tense-system of the verb
is different in the two languages. In English all the tenses but the Past
Indefinite and Present Indefinite are analytical. In English all the tenses are
tense-aspect forms but the indefinite group. In Russian practically the tenses
are synthetically. Only the Future tense may be both synthetically and
analytical. 
№3. The category of tense in English and in Russian
compare.
There are 3 tenses in both lang-s: Past,
Present and Future. But there is difference in the number of grammatical
tenses. This is because the two lang-s are different in their morphological
structure. The Russian lang. has a rich morphology while the morphology of the
English us poor.
In English all grammatical tenses are
divided into 4 large groups. They are: Indefinite, Continues, Perfect, Perfect
Continues. The specific feature of the English language is that all the tenses
are analytical but the Present and the Past Indefinite. All tenses in English
are tense-aspect forms, but the Indefinite tenses. We say that these tenses are
tense-aspect forms because they express both the time of an action and the
character of an action (He is reading a book now).
The tense-system of the verb is different
in the two languages. In English all the tenses but the Past Indefinite and
Present Indefinite are analytical. In English all the tenses are tense-aspect
forms but the indefinite group. In Russian practically the tenses are
synthetically. Only the Future tense may be both synthetically and analytical. 
№4. The category of aspect in English and in Russian
compare.
Both in ER is characterized by the category
of aspect. But this category of two languages is quite different. In English
the category of aspect shows the character of an action. That is whether the
action is shown as a fact or it shown in its progress in its developments (Pete
reads books everyday). Practically we have two aspects in English: the
continues and the non-continues common aspects. In Russian the c.o.a. expresses
the completeness or incompleteness of an action. The perfective aspect.
Subject is usually form in MoR with the help of prefixes (внести,
вынести, занести…).  Different verbs combine with the
different number of prefixes. Usually the verb with the suffix –ну— express
instantanian action. In English we used only one word (толкать,
толкнуть – to push). There are some modern verb in Russian
with the suffix –ну— which do not express instantanians actions. (вянуть,
вязнуть, гаснуть, сохнуть) It depends upon the lexical meaning. The imperfective
aspect. The words of imperfective aspect are formed by means of such
suffixes as –ыва-, -ива-, -ва-, -а-, -я-. (переписать
– переписывать, забить – забивать). In English the repetition of an action is usually expressed with the
help of the prefix “re-“ (to write-to rewrite). In MoR there are exist a
group of words of motions which have two forms of the imperfective aspect. The
category of aspect in MoR is very closely connected with the lexical meaning of
the word. 
№5. The category of voice in English and in Russian
compare.
There are different points of view
concerning the number of voices both in ER. There is an opinion that there are
3 voices in MoR: active, middle reflexive and passive. Grammatically we have
only 2 voices in English; active and passive. (Boy reads the book. The book is
read by the boy.) In the active voice the subject is the doer of an action
while in the passive voice the subject is not the doer of an action. There are
some group of verbs in MoR which are not used in the passive voice: 1) all the
intransitive verbs without the suffix «–ся» (идти, ехать, ходить), 2) reflexive verbs built upon
intransitive ones (споткнуться, улыбнуться), 3) some verbs with the suffix «–ся» having a special meaning (слушать-слушаться, нести-нестись). 
The specific feature of the English
language is that the Passive voice may be formed the verbs connected with the
indirect object. (She gave me a book. I was given a book by her. –
adv.modifier.) Let us compare the number of active-passive oppositions in both
languages. We see that Russian have two: пишет — пишется. In English we have 10
active-passive opposition. The forms of the Future Continues, Present Perfect
Continues, Past Perfect Continues, Future Perfect Continues are not used in the
Passive Voice. The category of voice is closely connected with the text (братья переписываются, бумаги переписываются секретарем). The instrumental case in Russian corresponds to
the by-phrase in English. When the Past Particle expresses a state –
Active voice, when it expresses the action – Passive voice. The action is emphasized
by the by-phrase, the adv.modifier and sometimes by the form itself.
The continues perfect forms usually emphasize an action (the door has been shut
– s.v.pr.). 
№7. The category of mood in English and in Russian
compare.
We find 3 moods both in ER. The category of
mood expresses the relation of an action to reality. (We were at home at 6
o’clock – reality, If we were at home at 6 o’clock – unreality).
The relation of an action to reality may be expressed lexically. Then we use modal verbs: конечно, обязательно,
точно, etc. (Of course he will
be at home now). The relation of an action may be expressed lexically and
grammatically at the same time. Then we use modal verbs (He can do it. He may
do it.). It may be phonetically with the help of intonation. The category of
mood is one of the most complicated categories especially in English. Usually
we speak about three moods in Russian. (Изъявительное,
повелительное и сослагательное). The
number of moods in MoE is greater. The best classification of moods was
introduced by Смирнитский. He finds six moods, which must be divided
into direct (Indicative, imperative) and indirect (Subjunctive I, II,
suppositional and conditional) moods. 
№8. The Subjunctive mood in English and in Russian
compare.
In both languages the Subjunctive mood
expresses a probable, possible, imaginary or unreal action. (If I had time I should visit you – если бы у меня было время,
я бы посетил тебя.) There are
many opinions exists concerning the number of moods both in ER. Smirnitsky finds
4 subjunctive moods in MoE: Subjunctive I, II, conditional and suppositional.
There is an opinion that in MoR there are 5 subjunctive moods such as the
conditional, the optative, the suppositional, the conditional optative and the
subjunctive moods. But practically we have only 4 moods. The suppositional and
subjunctive I are grammatical synonyms. They express probable, possible,
imaginary actions. But there are quite different in their forms. Subjunctive I
is a syntactical form of the mood. It has only one form. Which coincides with
infinitive without “to”. (I write, he write, she write). The
suppositional mood is an analytical form. It is formed with the help of a mood
auxiliary “should +Infinitive”. (I should write, He should write). The
SI is used both in simple and in complex sentences. (It is necessary that all
the students be present at the classroom). The suppositional mood is
used only in complex sentences (It is necessary that all the students should
be present.). SI is archaic form and it is often replaced by the
suppositional mood.  The SII and the conditional mood are also grammatical
synonyms. They express unreal actions or non-fact actions. SII is considered to
be a syntactical mood. It has two forms. If the action is referred to the present
or to the future it’s form coincides with the past indefinite indicative
(wrote, read). The verb “to be” is used to be “were”. If the actions refer to
the past the form of SII coincides with the Past Perfect Indicative. (If I knew
it. If I had know it.) It is usually used in subordinate clauses of the complex
sentence. The conditional mood is an analytical. It is formed with the help of
a mood auxiliary (“Should or Would”). (I should read, You would read).
The conditional mood is usually used in principle clauses of complex sentences.
(If I were you I should do it. – SII, conditional mood).
(Referring to the past – If I had been you I should have done it). 
The subjunctive mood in MoR is formed from
the past tense form adding the particle “бы”. It possesses
the category of gender and number. 
№9. The noun as a part of speech in E&R compare.
The meaning of the noun in both languages
is the same. It expresses “thingness”. Syntactically the noun both in ER is
used in the same functions: subject, object and predicative. (A boy is going to
school. My father is an engineer. Look at the picture on the wall.) A
peculiarity of Russian is the abundance of suffixes of subjective appraisal (братец,
билетик, доченька). In English there is a suffix “-let”
(booklet, leaflet). In both languages we find the grammatical category of
number and case. But they are different. In Russian we have practically 6 cases
while in English we find only 2 cases (the common and the possessive). The
common case in English isn’t marked while the nominative case in Russian is
marked. (Cf: a table –стол, a window – окно). The formation
of the plural number is standard in English and non-standard in Russian. Number
and case are sometimes expressed by separate morphemes in English
(oxen-oxen’s). The case-morpheme – “’s” may be used sometimes not with a
noun (The man I saw yesterday’s son). Though the meaning of case in both
languages is the relation of nouns to other nouns in the sentence. The
possessive case is used only with nouns (Peter’s book — книга Пети).
The common case in English is very widely used. It may function as any part of
the sentence – subject, object, predicative, attributive, and adverbial
modifier. Prepositions are of great importance in English. The of-phrase
is practically used with all the nouns. The difference between the possessive
case and the of-phrase is rather stylistic. The category of gender in
the two languages is different. In Russian it is morphological while in English
it is lexical. Practically we have only one suffix in English to express this
category morphologically – “-ess”. In both languages nouns are divided
into countable and uncountable. Uncountable include singularia tantum and
pluralia tantum. In Russian there is nearly always the correlation between the
form and between the combinability (часы стали, комитет заседает, семья ждет, сани едут). In English it is not so. (The cables
are, physics is, the family is/are). The number of Russian nouns having no
case-forms is not large. Usually they are borrowings. (пальто, такси, кенгуру, депо). 
In both languages the functions of
different cases are different. In Russian only a nominative case can be the
subject. Only an accusative case may be a direct object, only a nominative or
an instrumental case is used as a predicative. In English the possessive case
is used practically as an attribute. 
№10. The category of state in E&R compare.
In both languages exist such as asleep,
awake, alike, хорошо, душно. This words expressed different states. By
many Russian grammarians this words were discussed and called different
(adverbs, adjectives, predicative adverbs or adjectives). Sherba was the first
to say that these words form an independent part of speech and it was called
the category of state. In English such words as asleep, awake. Ilyish called
them stative, Хаймович called them add-link, and some others
called them the words of the category of state or predicative. Usually such
words are referred to these class: 1) words beginning with “a-“  — which
is a prefix (alive, asleep, etc), 2) words beginning with “a-“  — which
is not a prefix (afraid, awake, aloof, etc), 3) words consisting of one root
which developed from adjectives or adverbs and now they denote a state (ill,
glad, sorry, well, etc). The question is rather complicated because different
grammarians refer different words of this class. Жигайло, Иванова,
Йофик refer to this class only the words beginning with “a-“.
There is an opinion that this class is very rich in words expressing a state. (Лейкина
refers to this class such words as in, up, down, on, etc. e.g. what’s up?).
Different opinion exist: 1) the words of the category of state form an
independent part of speech. It may be characterized: semantically,
morphologically and semantically. Professor Ilyish said that semantically they
denote a state, morphologically they are characterized by the element “a-“,
and syntactically they are used as a predicative. (He is asleep –
comp.nom.pred.) 2) The words of the type “asleep” do not from an independent
part of speech. There are predicative adjectives. This point of view was put
forward by professor Бархударов. 3) The words of the type “alive” do not
form a grammatical category, they form a lexically category. This is because a
state may be expressed by different parts of speech: 1) by noun (it’s time
to have dinner), 2) by adj. (he is happy or unhappy) and 3) by
participle II (The house is destroyed). This point of view was put forward by
professor Вилюман. 
№11. The adjective as a part of speech in E&R
compare.
Both in English and in Russian the
adjective has the same meanings. It expresses the quality or the
characteristics of an action. The adj. is characterized in the two languages by
the same syntactical functions. They are attribute and the predicative. (An
interesting book. A book is interesting). Morphologically the adj-e in ER is different.
The Russian adj-e is more changeable. It’s characterized by such morphological
categories as the category of gender, number, case and the category of the
degrees of comparison. (интересная книга
– интересные книги, яркое солнце, интересный собеседник). The adj-e has only one grammatical category
– the category of the degrees of comparison. (red-redder-the reddest,
good-better-the best). There are 3 degrees of comparison of adj-s. In both
languages the positive degree, the comparative and the superlative. The
positive degree in English is not marked (red, beautiful) while in Russian it
is marked (красивый, красивая, красивое). In English adj-s are monosemantic, they
have practically one grammatical meaning, while in Russian the adj-e is
polysemantic (хороший has such gram-l m-gs as masculine gender,
singular number, nominative case, the positive degree). But the synthetic
comparative as красивее, лучшее и сильнее is monosemantic in Russian as well. In
Russian most qualitative adjectives have short forms, which are usually used as
predicative. The combinability of adjectives is also different in the 2 lang-s.
In English we usually speak about lexical and lexical-grammatical combinability.
In Russian the grammatical combinability is of great importance (широкое окно,
коричневый стол). The English adjective may have its
right-hand connection with the prop-word “one” (a good one, a nice one). There
are some adj-ves in Russian the syntactical function of which changes the
meaning (present, ill, glad; the present situation (not equal) the student is
present). Russian adjectives are characterized by the so-called suffixes of
subjective appraisal (длинненький, длиннющий, длинноватый). In both languages the adj is divided
into two groups: qualitative, relative. The number of relative adj-s is much
greater in Russian. Russian relative adj-s are usually rendered into English by
a noun in the common case (настольная лампа – a table lamp). Among the relative adj-s
in the Russian lan-ge. There is a group of possessive adj-s (Ольгин,
мамин, отцов). 
№12. Parts of speech in E&R compare.
Both in RE the vocabulary is classified
into parts of speech. The words are classified into parts of speech according
to three main principals: lexical, morphological and syntactical. ER belong to
the Indo-European family of the languages. They have much in common. There are
many words which both in languages having the same root morpheme: sister,
brother, mother, etc. Practically we find the same parts of speech in both
languages. But there is not article in Russian. Words having one and the same
meaning may belong to different parts of speech. (тишина,
тихий, тихо; to sleep, asleep, sleepy). This shows
that the lexical meaning only is not enough to classify the vocabulary into
parts of speech. The Russian language is syntactical, while the English is
analytical. In Russian the morphological principle is a great importance when
we classify words into parts of speech. The English morphology is poor and also
the syntactical principle and the combinability of words are of great
importance. (a black stone, a stone wall). The parts of speech in both languages
are divided into: notional words and form-words order and empty words. Such
parts of speech as the noun, the verb, the adjective, the pronoun, and the
stative are notional parts of speech. But the conjunction, the preposition, the
particle, the article are formal parts of speech. So in both languages there
are some words, which forward from one into another parts of speech. 
№13. The adverb as a part of speech in E&R
compare.
The adverb is a notional part of speech
both in ER. Therefore it is characterized lexically, morphologically and
syntactically. The lexical meaning. The adverb in both languages denotes
some circumstances under which an action takes place. It may also denote some
characteristics of an action or of a quality. (He has come late. Он пришел поздно. He is here. Он
здесь). These adverbs
express some circumstances under which an action takes place. The syntactical
functions of the adverb are also the same both in ER. It performs the
syntactical function that of an adverbial modifier. (He is here. Он здесь. – the adverbial modifier of place). The adverb in the 2 languages may
perform the syntactical functions of different adv. Modifiers such as time,
place, manner, cause, purpose and so on. (He will come tomorrow. He
speaks fluently.). As to the syntactical relations of the adverb to
words of other classes, it is characterized by being connected with the
verb, adjective and adverb. (He runs quickly. – verb;
He is very clever. – adj; He acts very cleverly.
— adverb). The adverb may be also connected with the noun, but this
is not a characteristic feature of the adverb. (My friend lives in the room
opposite. — noun). As to the morphological characteristics a part
of adverbs in both languages has the degrees of comparison. (slowly-more slowly-the
most slowly). All the adverbs in both languages are divided into 2 large
groups. They are: Circumstantial, Qualitative. They are different both in their
lexical meaning, grammatical char-s and word-formation. Circumstantial adverbs
are those adverbs, which denote the circumstances under which an action takes
place (here, there, late, здесь, теперь, там, тогда). While the qualitative adverbs do not
express any external circumstances. They express the characteristics of an
action or a quality. (slowly, fluently, badly). Qualitative adverbs are used in
the function of an adverbial modifier of manner. (He runs quickly.) The
circumstantial adverbs perform the function of adverbial modifiers but manner.
(He was there. He will come tomorrow.) The circumstantial adverbs are always
connected with the verb, they are unchangeable. The qualitative adverbs may be
connected with verb, adj, adverb. 
№14. Word-combination in E&R. Their definition and
classification.                                                                                     

The word-combination both in ER is
characterized by the following features. Practically the word-combination
consist of two or more notional words (a brown table). There is an opinion that
a word-combination may include two or more any words (a table, a book).
Some grammarians thinks that it is a word-combination, while the sentence may
be expressed by one word only, because the sentence possesses a complete
intonation. The word-combination has practically no intonation. Therefore the
word-combination is not a unit of communication. The word-combination has no
predication. If we say “a black table” we are not quite sure what tense is
meant here. Therefore the w-c has no predicative relations, such as the
relation of person, tense, modality. While the main feature of the sentence is
that expresses a predication. The w-c are usually build on the basis of one notional
word. This notional word is usually called the pivotal word of the main
word. The w-c are usually classified in accordance with their pivotal words. We
may have such w-c as: 1) Substantial w-c (a red rose, красная роза);
2) adjectival; 3) verbal (to give lessons, to read books); 4) adverbial (quite
near, совсем близко). W-cs both in ER may be classified into:
— free syntactical comb-s, phraseological units. Free syntactical combinations
are such combinations the part of which may be freely replaced (a large table –
a large brown table). A phraseological unit is understood as a whole and its
parts are not freely replaced (to show the white feather-струсить,
танцевать от печки-to begin from the very beginning). A w-c may also
classified according to their relations between the words in them. When we may
have: attributive combinations (a young man, a brown table), objective (to read
a book), adverbial (coming tomorrow, читал стоя/сидя). W-c may be simple and complex. Simplex
w-c usually consist of 2 notional words (a red rose, a good student). Complex
w-c consist usually of more than 2 words (to travel to a big city, a big red
rose). W-c may be subordinative (include pivotal words, or the pivotive words)
and coordinative w-c (all the element or words of they are equal – ножи и вилка,
a boy and a girl).
№15. Agreement as a mode of syntactical connection in
word-combination in ER compare.
Agreement is not often found in MoE, nut it
is widely used in MoR. Agreement is used to adjust the form of modified word to
the form of the pivotive word. (this room-these rooms, that room-those rooms, I
have a book-he has a book). Agreement in MoR is found in such grammatical
categories as gender, number, case, and person: 1) Full forms of adjectives in
MoR agree with corresponding nouns in gender, number and case (широкий залив,
широкая река, широкое озеро – gender; широкий залив
– широкого залива – case; широкий залив – широкие заливы – number). In plural no agreement in
gender is observed (широкие заливы – no gender). 2) Short forms of adjective
do not agree in case. In singular they agree in gender, number (город красив,
площадь красива – gender; город красив – города красивы – number). In Plural they agree only in
number. Cardinal-numerals in case (пяти домов, пятью домами). Verbs in Future and Present Tenses agree
in number and person (ученик пишет, ученики пишут).
№16. Government as a mode of syntactical connection in
word-combination in ER compare.
Government is a variety of syntactical
connection in accordance with which the use of the oblique case is dependent
upon the grammatical meaning of the pivotal word. Government found both in ER.
In English government is used to join together 2 nouns: the noun-attribute
usually is used in the Possessive Case. (A boy’s book – boys’ books, A day’s
holiday, an hour’s absence). Government is used in verbal combinations where
the object is expressed by a personal pronoun (Believe me, help him).
Prepositional government is more frequently used in MoE (to rely on him, to
depend upon him). The verb governments through the preposition. In MoR
governing words may be expressed by different parts of speech: 1) by a noun (крыло птицы);
2) by an adjective (склонный к шуткам); 3) by a numeral (двадцать деревьев);
4) by a pronoun (кто-то из братьев); 5) by an Infinitive (поливать улицу);
6) by an adverb (жарко от солнца). A noun or a noun-equivalent usually
expresses governed words (извлекать полезное, уважение к старшим). In accordance with the part of speech
the governing word belongs to, government in MoR is subdivided into: substantial
(осмотр здания – gen. case), adjectival (интересный для зрителя
– gen. case with a prep.), adverbial (делать весело, ему приятно), verbal (осматривать здание
– accusative case, доверить врагу – dative case). 
№17. Adjoining as a mode of syntactical connection in
word-combination in ER compare.
Adjoining is a variety of syntactical
connection when the dependence of one word upon another is expressed not
morphologically but semantically (My room-my rooms, a small room-small rooms).
In MoR the mostly spread adjoining is when an adverb is subordinated. Pivotal
words may be expressed by different parts of speech: 
1)   
by a verb
(твердо усвоен, хорошо написан), 
2)   
by a stative (вполне возможно),
3)   
by an adjective (почти черный),
4)   
by an adverb (очень слабо),
5)   
by a noun (езда шагом).
The Infinitive as well may be subordinated
(пошел
заниматься, жаль расставаться). Sometimes деепричастие may be subordinated (разговаривая смотрел на собеседника). 
№18. The sentence. Its features in ER compare. 3 main
ways of word connection in the sentence.
Syntax is closely connected with
morphology, but it is an independent part of grammar. It studies
word-combinations and sentences. The main features of a sentence: 1) the
sentence expresses a complete thought while w-c does not. (Cf: The table is
brown. A brown table.); 2) the sentence has a definite intonation and that is
why may consist only of one word, while the w-c consists of two or more words;
3) the sentence has a verb in a finite form (Cf: the weather is nice, the nice
weather); 4) the sentence expresses predication that is the relation between
what is said to reality. 
The action may be real, unreal, possible,
probable and so on. The action in the sentence may be referred to Present, Past
or Future. The w-c in a sentence may be connected in 3 ways: — the lexical way,
the grammatical and the phonetical way. 
The lexical way is the connection of words
according to their lexical meaning (мальчик читать книга – boy read book). Of course, the lexical
way is not enough. The given sentences are understandable but they are not
expressed grammatically. We don’t know the time of an action; we don’t know the
type of the sentence. So, words in a sentence must be connected grammatically.
There are 3 main grammatical ways of word connection in a sentence: 1) the
forms of words, 2) the form-words and 3) the word order. 
1.The forms of words are not typical of the
English language, because the morphological system of it is poor. This way is
typical of the Russian language. (I/You/We(S/he) read(s) a book, Я читаю,
ты читаешь…).
2. The form-words is of a great importance
in MoE. It is also wider spread in MoR. Form-words in ER are subdivided into:
1) the determinative form-words (we refer: in English – articles and particles
while in Russian – only particles) and 2) connectives (both in ER we refer
prepositions and conjunctions). 
3. The word-order in MoE is of a great
importance. In MoR the word-order in the sentence is rather free. While in
English the first place is usually occupied by the subject, the second place is
occupied by the Predicate, the third place – by the object, the fourth place –
by the adverbial modifier. (Ann sees John — Аня видит Джона. John sees Ann (not equal) Джона видит Аня).
№19. Classification sentences according to the type of
communication in ER compare.
Both in English and in Russian sentences
may be classified according to: 1) types of communication and 2) structure.
According to the types of communication
sentence in both languages are divided into: 1) declarative, 2) interrogative
and 3) imperative.
A Declarative sentence states a fact in the
affirmative or negative form. There is a great difference between English and
Russian negative sentences. An English sentence may have only one negation
while the Russian sentence one may have more than one. (Nobody was late. — Никто не опоздал.)
An Interrogative sentence asks a question. In English there are four winds of
questions: general, special, alternative and disjunctive. (Do you want…?, Where
do you want…?, Do you want …or…?, You want…, don’t you?). Russian interrogative
sentence may be divided into 2 groups: 1) Interrogative sentence having no
interrogative words, sometimes they may contain such particles as ведь,
как, что, неужели, разве, ли, and etc. In such cases they differ from
declarative sentence in intonation. (Инженер
поехал в Москву? Его здесь нет? Разве он вам писал? Неужели он ушел?); 2) Interrogative sentences having
interrogative words, such as кто, что, куда, откуда, почему (Кто пришел?
Что вы читаете?).  Special attention must be paid to the
indirect questions the rules of sequence of tenses must be observed. 
Imperative sentences serve to induce a
person to do something. They express a command, a request, an invitation, a
wish, a demand, a call and so on. Declarative, interrogative and imperative
sentences may be exclamatory when they express a strong emotion (happiness,
delight, anger, etc). (What a lovely day it is! How wonderful!) (Москва как много в этом звуке…).
№20. Classification sentences according to the
structure in ER compare.
According to the structure sentences are
divided into: two-member and one-member sentences. A two-member sentence
has two members: the subject and the predicate. (Pete reads. Mary writes.) A
two-member sentence may be: complete and incomplete 2 member sentences. The
complete has both the subject and the predicate. The incomplete is a sentence
then one of the principle parts or both of them are missing, but can be easily
understood from the sentence. Such sentences are called elliptical. (Where are
you going? – To the cinema.) Elliptical sentences are usually met in colloquial
speech and dialogues. A one-member sentence is a sentence, which has
only one member, which is neither the subject nor the predicate. One member
makes the sentence complete. One-member sentences are generally used in
description and in emotional speech. If the main part of a one-member sentence
is expressed by a noun and the sentence is called nominal. (Dusk-of the summer
night. Зима, крестьянин торжествует). A simple sentence may be extended (has both the principle
parts of the sentence and the secondary parts. E.g. Pete reads book everyday.)
and unextended (has only the subject and the predicate). Sentences in both
languages may be composite. Composite sentences are divided into:
compound and complex. A compound is a sentence which consist of two or more
clauses coordinated with each other. (The darkness was thinning, but the street
was still dimly lighting. Прозрачны лес
один чернеет…). A complex
sentence consist of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. (He
steps quicken as he set out from the hotel.) Subordinated clauses may be of
different types: subject (Where I am going is unknown), object, predicative
(with link-verb), attributive, adverbial.